The early atmosphere was mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour. Water vapour condensed to form the oceans. Photosynthesis caused the amount of carbon dioxide to decrease and oxygen to increase.

The reactivity series shows metals in order of reactivity. The reactivity of a metal is related to its tendency to form positive ions. Iron and aluminium are extracted from their ores in various ways.

Correlated motions of proteins underpin many physiological mechanisms, such as substrate binding, signal transduction, enzymatic activity, and allostery. These motions arise from low-frequency ...

Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license. Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator. The dynamics of hydrogen fluoride in aqueous solutions at the atomic scale cannot ...